Dawson Site pt1 |
Previous | 1 of 4 | Next |
|
small (250x250 max)
medium (500x500 max)
Large
Extra Large
large ( > 500x500)
Full Resolution
|
This page
All
|
Tl300.7A669 No.5 C.4 THE DAWSON SITE »: ", ./ '-,1,\ \ (c-1/ Iii VJf\ r{ d V / -, ~ ~tl: :D~\"~:',,., , L'?~ "''.."... F',IA/,. I' '\ _# ~~ ,~, "). ' " ~J..~" ~, , ,,' I (~ @\'o;!': •• l! '> . I:~ o , 2 eM OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY PAPERS IN HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGY -NO.5, 1978 OKLAHOMA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING DIVISION THE DAWSON SITE (MY-140): AN ARCHAIC WORKSHOP IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA by Timothy G. Baugh OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY PAPERS IN HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGY, NUMBER V 1978 k TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ·vii Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. General Introduction and Background . . . 1 B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project. 2 C. The Setting. . 3 D. Archaeological Background. . · . 11 II. The Excavation and Recovered Material . . . · 17 A. Excavation strategy and Stratigraphy 17 B. Cultural Remains . . . . . 21 Lithic Trajectory Remains .. · . 21 1. Resource Acquirement. · 22 Lithic Material . 22 2. Initial Reduction . . • 24 Thick Biface I.... • • 25 3. Intermediate Reduction. . 26 Thick Biface II . . . 26 4. Primary Modification. 28 Thin Biface I . • 28 Thin Biface II. . . . . . . . . . . . 28 i • 6. Recycling Processes 39 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.) 5. Secondary Modification and Final Preparation .•......•........ 30 stemmed Biface-Projectile Points 30 stemmed and Unstemmed Bifaces- General utility, Fabricating, and/or Processing Tools 35 Recycled Implements ............... 42 Incidentally Modified Flake Implements-Flake Implement Ser ie s I 48 Intentionally Modified Flake Implements-Flake Implement Series II •.•.....•..•.......•.•••. 61 7. Lithic Trajectory Debitage .._...... 71 Lithic Debitage 73 8. Ground Stone Implements 76 III. Interpretative Analysis 80 A. Intra-Site Analysis 80 B. Inter-Site Analysis 94 C. A Commentary on Seriation 109 D. Summary Perspective of the Dawson site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III References Cited 112 ii Figure LIST OF FIGURES 1. Geomorphic Provinces of Northeastern Oklahoma. . . . •• ..••. 4 2. Biotic Districts of Northeastern Oklahoma. . . • • • • . . • • . • ... 6 3a. Correlation Between Climatic Episodes and Archaeological Periods in North-eastern Oklahoma. . . .. .... 8 3b. Key sites in Northeastern Oklahoma. 13 4. Dawson Site: contour Map . 18 Test Excavations and 5. Dawson Site: W5-S3 . . • . Views of Excavated Square 19 6. Dawson Site: Square Profiles 20 7. Lithic Reduction Sequence 27 8. Reduction Bifaces 29 9. Projectile Points 33 10. Dawson Site Artifacts 40 11. Other Dawson Site Artifacts . 44 12. Incidentally Modified Flake Implements. . 50 13. Intentionally Modified Flake Implements 62 14. Flake Types and Attributes . 74 15. Horizontal Distribution of Projectile Points. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 16. 84 Horizontal Distribution of Reduction Bifaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 iii 19. Locations of Archaeological sites 1n Northeastern Oklahoma . 96 LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd) Figure 17. Horizontal Distribution of Flake Implement Series I - Incidentally Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 86 18. Horizontal Distribution of Flake Implement Series II - Intentionally Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 87 20. Frequency of Projectile Points from Selected Sites in Northeastern Oklahoma 102 iv Table 10. 11. 12. LIS T OF TABLES 1. Provenience of Reduction Bifaces and projectile Points . . . . . . • . • . 37 2. Lithic Material of Reduction Bifaces and Projectile Points . • • . . . • . . . •. 38 3. Provenience of General utility, Fabri-cating and/or Processing Tools. 46 4. Lithic Material of General utility, Fabricating and/or Processing Tools . 47 5. Provenience of Incidentally Modified Flake Implements. . . . . . . . .. 59 6. Lithic Material of Incidentally Modified Flake Implements . . . 60 7. Provenience of Intentionally Modified Flake Implements. . . . . . . .. .... 70 8. Lithic Material of Intentionally Modified Flake Implements . . . 71 9. Provenience of Lithic Debitage. 77 Lithic Material of Lithic Debitage. 78 Artifact Concentration Indices by site Quarters . 81 Estimated Age Ranges for projectile Points . 82 13. Comparative Concentration Indices by Quadrant. . . . . . · · · · 88 14. Chi-square Tests. . · · · · 89 15. Flake Concentration Indices for Six Selected Squares. . . . . . . · · · · 91 v LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.) Table 16. Implement Concentration Indices . . . . . . . 92 17. Flake Concentration Indices by Quadrants for Six Selected Squares. . . . . .. .. 93 18. Cultural Sequence at the Packard site (My-66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 19. Cultural Sequence at the Pohly Site (My-54) . . . . . . . . . . . 99 20. Cultural Sequence at the Wolf Creek Site (My-72). . . . . . . . . . .... 106 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Any research of this magnitude involves a number of people. I would like to take this time to thank them for their individual contributions. Roy Dawson, the landowner, willingly gave his consent for the ex-cavations to be conducted. His interest in Oklahoma's prehistory made this project much easier to accomplish. The author participated in neither the survey nor the excavations. Obviously, this report could not have been completed without the diligent work of those in-dividuals involved. David R. Lopez, Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey, directed the overall project, both in the field and laboratory. The initial survey and excavation was capably performed by Joe Dale Baskus, Max Benge, Roger Burkhalter, Larry Childers, Scott Colbert, Pete Colwell, Jim Cox, Vanon Sun Chee Fore, Kenneth LaRue, Ricky Rutherford, Roger Saunders, Mike Talley, Jerry Toland, Steve Vanlandingham, and Charlie Younger. Laboratory space and facilities were provided by both the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey and the Oklahoma Archaeological Survey. The following individuals willingly gave of their time to discuss various aspects of lithic technology: . Sheila Bobalik, Richard Drass, Jerry Galm, David Hughes, David Lopez, Guy Muto, Larry Neal, Roger Saunders, and Don Wyckoff. Susan Vehik and Alan Acock aided with their know-ledge of statistical concepts. Hester Davis and Frank Schaumbach, Arkansas Arch-aeological Survey, willingly discussed comparative re-search and findings in Arkansas. Others who were willing to listen and make comments on various aspects of this report and otherwise provided assistance include Kent Buehler, Pat Harden, Jack Hofman, Mary Ann Holmes, Chris Lintz, Richard Pailes, Dan Rogers, Chuck Rohrbaugh, and Charles Wallis. Lois Sanders and Fanny Wigley provided day-to-day continuity throughout the writing of this report. vii viii The typing was efficiently and quickly performed by Debbie Blackstock. Photographic shooting, developing, and printing was accomplished by Casey Petrauskas, Re-production Supervisor, Kenneth Corder, photo section Foreman, and Photographers Ron Gordon and James Knight. Much of the drafting was expertly drawn by Gary Taylor, Current Planning Branch Illustrator. Site photogram-metry was ably accomplished by Oscar C. Curnutt, Assis-tant Survey Engineer, while Jerry Haynes, Survey Crew Chief o'utof the Tahlequah Office, accurately laid out the grid system. Bill Sommer, Reproduction Foreman, directed the final printing of this report. Constructive criticism of the initial manuscript was given by Rain Vehik and Don Wyckoff. Their time and efforts have vastly improved the quality of this report. Finally, David Lopez should be cited for his informative guidance and patience throughout this project. without his support, encouragement, and confidence this report may not have been completed. Of course, any errors contained herein belong en-tirely to the author. ABSTRACT The Dawson site, My-140, was excavated during a five week period in May and June, 1977, by the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey. The excavation was deemed necessary since the proposed alignment of the Lindsey-Mayes Bridge Project will endanger the site. The Dawson site is the first single component Archaic workshop to be found in northeastern Oklahoma. The cultural remains were analyzed in the framework of a lithic reduction trajectory to more fully determine the nature of the activities at the site. The primary util-ization of My-140 probably occurred about 4000 B.P. The Dawson site may have repeatedly served as a lithic collection and reduction station during the Middle to Late Archaic periods. This report also attempts to synthesize some of our knowledge concerning the pre-history of northeastern Oklahoma. ix I GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Communication and transportation systems are a neces-sary component of a prosperous national and local economy. The Oklahoma Department of Transportation plays a vital role in the state by continually attempting to uphold high quality standards for the Sooner highway systems. As a part of this program the construction of the Lindsey- Mayes bridge was proposed in northeast Oklahoma. When planning and surveying of the new alignment revealed that the Dawson site, My-140, was threatened, the Oklahoma De-partment of Transportation in cooperation with the state Archaeologist deemed excavation to be advisable. This was deemed necessary since My-140 was the first single component Archaic lithic workshop known for this region. Thus, a team of archaeologists from the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey commenced such work in January, 1976. A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey In the following pages we will examine the Dawson site's cultural remains and their contextual associations. Although representing a small segment of Oklahoma's cul-ture history, when tied into other archaeological sites a larger panorama begins to emerge. To accomplish this end, this report is divided into three sections. The first of these deals with general information concerning the Dawson site, as well as the natural setting and arch-aeological background. The second section is concerned with excavation strategies and the recovered cultural materials. The final section provides an intrasite and intersite interpretative analysis. The major objectives of the Oklahoma Department of Transportation is the planning, construction and main-tenance of quality roadways within the state. Yet, they are also cognizant of the benefits that the conservation and preservation of the state's prehistoric and historic cultural resources provide the people of Oklahoma. As a result a few archaeological investigations were sponsored by the Department of Transportation during the 1950's (cf. Shaeffer 1965 and 1966). However, these projects were terminated in 1962. 1 2 In 1972, the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Sur-vey (OHAS) was formed through the efforts of Dr. Robert E. Bell, university of Oklahoma, Don G. wyckoff, State Arch-aeologist, the O. U. Board of Regents as well as Chester Brooks, Director of the Oklahoma Department of Highways, Monty C. Murphy, Planning Engineer, and Clifford Nelms, Rural Transportation Engineer. The primary task of the OHAS is the management of Oklahoma's cultural resources when directly affected by pending highway construction. Archaeological materials allow us to investigate the activities of past popula-tions and thereby to determine their cultural identity. The final objective is to provide the people of Oklahoma with a better understanding of their past by the analysis and reporting of these materials. Be that as it may, the end result begins much more modestly. When proposed highway projects are advanced an archaeological team conducts an initial survey. This activity is essential for both highway construction and conservation concerns since not all sites can be ex-cavated. Some sites may not provide any significantly new information or data while others are inherently more valuable. Preferring to concentrate on the latter, an archaeologist can best evaluate a site by test ex-cavations. Thus if realignment is not feasible and the initial survey indicates a possibly significant site, test squares may be placed in strategic locations. Test excavations determine the vertical and horizontal limits of a site as well as the number of components or dis-tinct occupations. If such test excavations demonstrate the site's importance, more extensive work may follow. Because of their large size, the techniques involved, and the operating budget few sites are excavated in their en-tirety. Therefore, each site must be approached with a specific problem in mind. B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project The Dawson site was first reported in December, 1976, by David Lopez and Vanon Sun Chee Fore. The site was discovered during an intensive field survey of the pro-posed Lindsey-Mayes Bridge project. Recovered cultural remains included biface fragments, modified and unmod-ified flakes as well as general workshop debris. This material led to the preliminary belief that My-140 rep-resented a single component, middle to late Archaic, lithic workshop. Since few single component sites re-lating to this time period were known, evaluative testing was considered necessary. The site is on a bluff overlooking the Neosho River and covers from two to three acres of land. In January, 197~ two test squares were excavated. More intensive testing occurred in May, 1977,when sixteen new squares were excavated. The bridge project1s centerline was used as the primary axis of the grid system with a datum point established at station 129 (see Figure 4). Including both testing periods a total of eighteen 5 x 5 foot squares were excavated in arbitrary four inch levels. C. The Setting The Dawson site is approximately seven miles south-east of Pryor Creek, Oklahoma. Found in the Neosho Lowland geomorphic province (see Figuxe 1) an inter-mixture of deciduous trees and prairie grasses dotted with varicolored chert nodules cover the site. In 1819, Thomas Nuttall traveled up the Neosho River and noted that above II a bend called the Eagle i s nest ••• a facade of calcareous rock appears, inlaid with beds of whitish hornstone" (Nuttall 1905:241). These Mississippian lime-stone formations are interbedded with outcrops of Keokuk and Moorefield chert and are still present today along the banks of the Neosho River. One soil series~ Eldorado, is reported for the im-mediate vicinity of the Dawson site. within the site perimeter this soil is relatively shallow and well drained. The primary parent material consists of weath-ered cherty limestone which decomposed while covered with native grasses (Polone, Newland! and Swafford 1975: 17). Gray and Roozitalab (1976:28-30) and Gray and Stahnks (1970:10-11) classify the Eldorado soil series as Pa1eudu1ts belonging to the order of U1tisols (mineral soils with an argillic horizon). They are characterized as occurring in humid climates with a fairly even dis-tribution of rainfall, but with a seasonal cycle of limited aridity. such soils are slightly acidic and have a 3 Figure 1 GEOMORPHIC PROVINCES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA (After Curtis and Ham 1972) ,------1 ~,, -------- ..,I 1:::::::1 OZARK PLATEAU ~ NEOSHO LOWLAND k:~~fJCLAREMORE CUESTA PLAINS 1111111!1!1!11:::1 EASTERN SANDSTONE CUESTA PLAINS BOSTON MOUNTAINS low organic content resulting from a forest vegetation (Gray and Roozitalab 1976:28). The contemporary Dawson site is on the boundary of the oak-hickory forest and tall grass prairie (Shelford 1963:19, 307, and 330) or the Ozark and Osage Savanna biotic districts (Blair and Hubbell 1938:427). Figure two depicts the range of these biotic districts in north-eastern Oklahoma. The Dawson site occurs in the Springfield Struc-tural Plain (Huffman 1958:11). Topographically this area is a deeply dissected plateau with flat divides separated by young, V-shaped stream·valleys. These rivers and streams form a dendritic drainage pattern across northeastern Oklahoma. This evidence seems to indicate a fluctuating envir-onmental scene. Unfortunately intensive palynOlogical, paleoclimatological, and biogeographical studies have not been conducted in this part of Oklahoma. However, corresponding research in surrounding areas may provide a generalized understanding of paleoecological processes operating in northeast Oklahoma (cf. Dort and Jones 1970j Gruger 1973j King 1973j King and Lindsay 1976j and Wen-dorf and Hester 1975). The present day galleria forest in northeastern Oklahoma may be only 2,000 to 3,000 years old. Paleo-climatologists have divided the Holocene epoch into several climatic episodes (see Figure 3a). The earliest of these periods is known as the Pre-Boreal which began about 10,000 years ago (Baerreis and Bryson 1975a:214). Prior to this the Pleistocene epoch was dominant. In the northern regions the Pleistocene was marked by glacial advances and retreats. At the same time, however, the Southern Plains and Oklahoma experienced alternating pluvial (cool and wet) and interval (less moist) periods (Wendorf 1975:12). In association with these either a boreal coniferous forest dominated by Pinus and Picea or a pine savanna made its appearance on the southern Plains (Oldfield and Schoenwetter 1975:149-157). Afterward, during the Holocene a warmer, dryer interval prevailed throughout the prairie-plains region. During this interval the boreal forests were retreating 5 1'f'!glire 2 BIOTIC DISTRICTS of NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA (After Blair and Hubbell 1938) ~~_, , In{U r------------- /' ~;1~.>:r,iT \ ~t~~ \ ,i , I~ L' "'.'"'\..--......-. --, I,, ·v~•.•\.1.."..-.'-_,-~ _-..; I ~I fll~ I "7 II '-mI II ::;::,;; ,--------1 --~ET''l~~ -, -------------: ' - ~ '-J i SOZARK DISTRICT ~ CHEROKEE PRAIRIE DISTRICT OJ] OSAGE SAVANNA 01 STRICT northward, being replaced by an expanding grassland com-posed of Compositae and Gramineae (wright 1970:166-169). As the flora shifted so too did the fauna. Bison moved toward the Atlantic, later to be isolated in pockets east of the Mississippi. The Holocene epoch contrasts strongly with the Pleis-tocene. Generally climatic conditions became somewhat warmer as the glaciers retreated northward. Yet our un-derstanding of the micro-climate for the last 10,000 years in northeast Oklahoma is minimal at best. This results primarily from the vast amount of regional variation present during these years. liTheactual character of the climatic episodes must be reconstructed from other evidence, bearing in mind that when it is colder in one region the atmospheric mechanics may require that it be warmer in anotherll (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:213). The Ozark biotic district is presently character-ized by an oak-hickory forest with a somewhat barren forest floor. However, several species of shrubs (such as sassafras) may also be present. On steeper slopes and in deeper ravines there tends to be a balanced water supply and hence a more mesic plant community consisting of sugar maple, hop hornbeam, white oak, chinquapin oak, redbud and flowering dogwood. Because of a more balanced water supply the forest floor is carpeted with herbaceous mesophytes such as wild ginger, yellow dogtooth violets, bloodroot, may applep and maidenhair fern. In moister sections var ious mosses, ferns and liverworts are also common. The exposed grayish limestone and chert bluffs sup-port a more scattered vegetation including junipers or red cedars, blackjack, and winged elm. Here the soil is quite thin and only the rock crevices contain enough deposits to support plant life. Accordingly, ground cover is also relatively sparse with roc~ dwelling her-baceous plants such as columbines and purple cliff brakes being representative. The flood plains of the larger stream valleys sup-port a more open forest consisting of silver maple, American elm, red birch, cottonwood, and sycamore as well as linden and the ubiquitous oaks. Along most 7 A.D/a. C BP '---------- , 1900 50 I 1850 I 100 I 1700 I 250 I I 1550 I 400 1500 I 450 1450 I 500 1400 I 550 I 1250 I 700 1200 I 750 1 1000 I 950 900 I 1050 I 750 I 1200 I 260 I 1690 I I AD.I I 1950 B.C. I 50 I 2000 I 940 I 2890 I 1550 I 3500 I I 2730 I 4680 I / I 4030 I 5980 I 4550 / 6500 I 5100 I 7050 I 578C I 7730 I I 6500 J 8450 I 7190 I 9140 I 7700 I 9650 I 8050 /10,000 CLIMATIC EPISODES CULTURAL VARIANTS for NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA ~------------------~---------------- Caddo IV Modern Cherokee Historic Osage I ! Caddo II I Spiro Focus --I Gibson 1----------+-----I ---1 \ Neo-At/antic ' ! Harlan Camplex I Neo-Boreal ---~ / 1Fullon I F:'ffee Neosho L Focus Ir-- I Caddo III I Caddo I Scond ic \ (Grove C Focus) i, I i I L ate I Woodland ,! I Archaic L_ I I ---.J,i ------------------f (Grove B Focus) /I ---- .-.-----------._--.--i I I I I 'II r----------.-------If M/d die , I Atlantic IV I Ar c oa/c i ~ (Grove A Focus) " Atlantic III III III I I I Sub-Atlantic Sub-Boreal Archa/c Atlantic " A tlantic I Early Boreal " Boreal I Pre-Boreal Figure 30 CORRELATION BETWEEN CLIMATIC EPISODES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERIODS IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA stream banks willows gently spread their branches while either a soft, green blanket of grass or a scaley, brown coverlet of patinated chert cobbles may occur (Blair and Hubbell 1938: 427-428). Directly adjacent to this biome and near the vicinity of the Dawson site is the Osage Savanna district (Blair and Hubbell 1938:433-434). This area, primarily in the Claremore Cuesta Plains geomorphic province, is composed of broad shale flatlands with steep-sided hills and ridges of resistant Pennsylvanian sandstone and limestone (see Figure 1). Dry scrubby forest vegetation, including blackjack, post oak and black hickory, cover the hills and escarp-ments. However, larger, more mature trees such as Amer-ican elm, slippery elm, spotted oak, pin oak, hackberries, as well as red birch, black willow and buttonbush occur in the flood plain. Washington Irving toured this region in 1832 and provided us with a description of just such a forest. We were overshadowed by lofty trees with straight, smooth trunks, like stately columns; and as the glancing rays of the sun shone through the transparent leaves, tinted with the many-colored hues of autumn, I was reminded of the effect of sunshine among the stained windows and clustering columns of a Gothic cathedral. Indeed there is a grandeur and solemnity in our spacious forests of the West .•• (Irving 1956:41) On the flat to rolling shale plains, grassland corn-munities dominate. Tall grasses such as bluejoint, prairie beardgrass, indiangrass, and switchgrass are most abund-ant. Herbaceous plants include false indigo, blazing stars, starwort, sunflower, and sage. Occasional persim-mon groves occur on the prairie as well. A third biotic district/the Cherokee Prairie/is also found in northeastern Oklahoma. It is distinguished from the Osage Savanna by more aridity. This is a mixed grassland with both tall and short varieties occurring in the thinner soil of the limestone scarp. The principal 9 Gramineae are buffalo-grass, side-oats grama, and silver beardgrass. Yucca plants, prickly pear, and occasional persimmon groves are scattered throughout the dry prairie. The average annual precipitation for Mayes County is about 40 inches. Most occurs during the late spring and early autumn. Snowfall generally accounts for only one-fourth or less of this amount. While traveling with an escort of Rangers, washington Irving observed an autumn thunderstorm on the Osage Savanna. In crossing a prairie of moderate extent, rendered little better than a slippery bog by the recent showers, we were overtaken by a violent thunder-gust. The rain came rat-tling upon us in torrents, and spattered up like steam along the ground; the whole land-scape was suddenly wrapped in gloom that gave a vivid effect to the intense sheets of lightning, while the thunder seemed to burst over our very heads, and was reverberated by the groves and forests that checkered and skirted the prairie. Man and beast were so pelted, drenched, and confounded, that the line was thrown in complete confusion; some of the horses were so frightened as to be almost unmanageable, and our scattered cavalcade looked like a tempest-tossed fleet, driven hither and thither, at the mercy of wind and wave (Irving 1956:101-102). This region is characterized by a humid, warm-temperate continental climate. The mean annual tem-perature is 600F. Monthly averages vary between about 360F in December to 800F in August. During the summer, temperatures soar over the 100 F mark about ten times. Conversely, about ten days out of each winter remain at or below freezing. The first frost may be as early as October 6 while the last freeze may be as late as April 7. The average growing season, however, is about 205 days (Polone, Newland, and Swafford 1975:83-84). Galleria forests and grasslands support a wide array of wildlife. Acorns, oak twigs, bark and cambium all provide sources of food. Birds such as the greater prairie chicken, turkey, wood duck, American avocets, 10 cranes, and various species of blackbirds were commonly -sighted by early Euro-American writers who visited the pra1r1e and forest regions of northeastern Oklahoma. Charles Latrobe, who traveled with Washington Irving, wrote the following lines concerning the fall habits of the prairie chicken. Their wariness at this time is extreme; and the slightest indication of the ap-proach of man even at a great distance, is noticed by the cock; who, perched on the topmost twig elongates his neck and peeps first on one side, and then on another, with the most provoking caution (Latrobe 1836:249). There are over 250 species of birds which may be found in this region (Sutton 1967). On the other hand, only 63 species of mammals in-habit the northeastern section of the state (Hellack 1974:144-146). These include bison, black bear, badger, white-tailed deer, bobcat, mountain lion, mink, red wolf, beaver, southern flying squirrel, as well as the gray and fox squirrels, woodchuck, eastern chipmunk, black tailed jackrabbit, swamp rabbit, and others. Rep-tiles too are frequently encountered (see McDermott 1940:156 and 208; Engbretson 1974:103-118). Such a wide array of plant and animal life made this area a desirable locale for various prehistoric groups. D. Archaeological Background Most regional discussions of prehistoric chronol-ogies begin with a Paleo-Indian or Big Game Hunting Tradition (13,000 B.P. - 10,000 B.P.). Skeletal remains of the forest browsing mastodon (Mammut americanus) have been recovered from the Three Forks locale, but, at the same time, no cultural materials have been found in association with these remains. Fluted lanceolate points are considered representative of this tradition. How-ever, only scattered surface finds occur in the Ozarks (see Chapman 1948; Scholtz 1969; Wood and McMillan 1969). Even though the more western sites relating to this 11 tradition tend to indicate a hunting subsistence strategy, gathering activities may have played an equally if not more important role (see Alland, et. al. 1968) which continued in the following Archaic period. The Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 2,000 B.P.) is the first major period represented in northeast Oklahoma. Ecolog-ical shifts during this time period have led many arch-aeologists to conclude that more intensive exploitation patterns were being employed. This situation resulted in a great deal of regional variation. Three Archaic sub-periods, Early, Middle and Late, may be defined for northeastern Oklahoma. Be that as it may, intensive ecological studies are needed in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of Archaic adaptations. The Early Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 6,500 B.P.) is characterized by hunting implements which may be con-sidered transitional between the Paleo-Indian and later Archaic adaptations (Griffin 1964:225-229). Projectile points, with ground stems and bases as well as beveled and/or serrated blades are most typical. such forms as Dalton, Agate Basin, Big Sandy and Johnson are represen-tative. Known campsites, such as Rodgers Shelter, Missouri, were occupied for relatively short periods of time (McMillan 1976:223-224). This period has been correlated with the Pre-Boreal, Boreal I and II as well as Atlantic I-III climatic episodes (see Figures 3a and 3b). At the present our understanding of these post-glacial episodes is even more limited than that of later periods. Thus we have few if any insights into the climatic process operating in northeast Oklahoma during this time (Bryson, Baerreis and Wendland 1970:47). A second major economic strategy, the Middle Archaic (6,500 B.P. - 3,500 B.P.), evolved between 7,000 to 6,000 B.P. Former nomadic hunting and gathering bands shifted to seasonal exploitation cycles of a localized area. Even more variation in implement form is apparent during this period. Expanding base points such as Marcos, Edgewood, Duncan and Hannah are representative. This economic shift is reflected in base camps being occupied longer and utilized more intensively by apparently larger groups. For northeastern Oklahoma this period has been 12 Figure 3b KEY SITES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA w~~:~-rr;-:· v • , "~' '"rt ~ \ J/~i:v ~tr\\~, I rJ~ _~1_- ~ '\ (OOlogah Res. V~/ ..A- _ ., ,r-I• / ~ ~ I a:. .Ji'" / I ( .1 ( I • I • \ l 1/f'A-~~ L . 12. r---------: ~,, ---------. ,, 1. DAWSON (My-140) 2. KERR DAM (My-48) 3. WOLF CREEK (My - 72) 4. JUG HILL (My - 18) 5. PACKARD (My - 66) 6. POHL Y (My - 54) 7. REED (01 - 11) 8. LAWRENCE (Nw - 6) 9. JENSEN (My - 32) 10. LILLIE CREEK (01 - 41) 11. HUFFAKER (01 - 12) 12. HUGHES (Ms - 4) 13. HARLAN (Ch - 6) 14. NORMAN (Wg - 2) designated Grove A Focus (Baerreis 1951~ Bell and Baerreis 1951:10-14). Parallel and expanding stem projectile points, hafted scrapers, choppers, and small grinding stones are implements associated with this period (Baer-reis 1951:65-66). The beginning of the Middle Archaic is associated with Atlantic III and IV which may be correlated with expanding grasslands and warmer temperatures on the Plains (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:57-58). The Late Archaic (3,500 B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is bas-ically a continuation of the Middle Archaic techno-economic pattern. The major difference is the exploitation tech-niques may be even more intensive. Grove B Focus rep-resents the earlier portion of this period (Baerreis 1951; Bell and Baerreis 1951:13-14). The later Grove C Focus is somewhat problematical. In some regions it persisted until relatively late while in other areas outside influences seem to have gradually transformed it into a formative Woodland culture. The Late Archaic has a predominance of contracting stem dart points such as Gary and Langtry. The initiation of this period is correlated with the Sub-Boreal climatic episode which is characterized by less moisture and cooler temperatures on the Plains (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:60). However, the following Sub-Atlantic episode is associated with more moderate precipitation and temperatures as well as being correlated with the Woodland period. The Woodland (2,OOO B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is assoc-iated with a gradual shift toward part-time horticul-ture. According to Griffin (1978:63) IIIttook from roughly 1,000 B.C. to A. D. 700 for agriculture to be-come a basic subsistence factor, and the populations in the East continued their dependence on hunting and gath-ering skills developed during the long Archaic period.1I Pottery and small projectile or arrow points represent the major technological changes. In northeastern Okla-homa the Cooper Focus is considered intrusive (Bell and Baerreis 1951:27-33) while the Delaware A Focus is be-lieved to be a local development out of Grove C Focus (Purrington 1970:531-539). 14 The Mississippian Tradition represents a second in-trusion into northeastern Oklahoma. The Harlan Complex, or Caddo I period, is an early Caddoan manifestation and is represented by a primary mound center at the Harlan site, Cherokee County (Bell 1972) with possible second-ary centers at Reed and Lillie Creek in Delaware County. These centers are generally associated with satellite communities such as the Jensen site in Mayes County (Wyckoff 1971:57-72). The political organization of these people appears to be a theocratic rank society as surmised from the elaborate goods placed in some but not all burials. The economic basis of these centers is not well understood at the present, but they seem to be based on a mixed pursuit of horticulture, hunting, and collect-ing. A florescence occurred during the succeeding spiro Focus or Caddo II (wyckoff 1971:72). During this time the Harlan center declines and is eclipsed by the Norman and Hughes mound centers. Reed and Lillie Creek continue through this period, with Huffaker being added, as satel-lite communities. The spiro Focus is followed by the Fort Coffee Focus, or Caddo III and IV, which represents a Caddoan contrac-tion. Of the previous centers all but Norman disappear. Burial associations during these periods indicate a more egalitarian based society with a number of Plains traits, such as bison scapula hoes, gaining acceptance. Paleo-climatologists have speculated that a climatic shift to a period of less precipitation may have occurred during the Pacific I episode in the Plains region (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:64). Related to this clim-atic shift, Plains influences begin to penetrate into eastern Oklahoma (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:2l6; Wyckoff 1971:154-164). "viewing the Gibson-Fulton transition from the perspective of eastern Oklahoma, it would appear that environmental factors may be operative in producing the shift from one period to the succeeding one" (Baer-reis and Bryson 1965b:72). Between 450 B.P. and 250 B.P. the climax region for the Fort Coffee Focus centered on the Arkansas. The processes of culture change during this time became even more complex according to Baerreis and Bryson (1965a: 217) as the onset of the Neo-Boreal episode and European contact began at about the same time. 15 The Neo-Boreal is sometimes referred to as the Lit-tle Ice Age as glaciers began to reappear in the Rocky Mountains and other parts of North America. "It is likely that the growing season was shortened, and that the sum-mers were cooler in the upper Midwest" (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:2l7). About 1850 these conditions shifted to our present climatic patterns. Somewhat further north and east of the Fort Coffee Focus was the Neosho Focus. Recovered cultural remains from Fort Coffee and Neosho components indicate a close relationship between the two. Indeed Wyckoff (197l:l96) comments: "That these two manifestations are contemp-oraneous is evident. That they are the same people is a distinct possibility." Exactly who these people were is somewhat speculative. There are two possibilities. During the historic period the wichita are known to have occupied this region (Newcomb and Field 1967:246-250). Thus the Fort Coffee and Neosho Focus may be correlated with the wichita or with an intermediary Caddoan group who traded with the wichita. Be that as it may, the wichita were displaced from this area by the Osage in the eighteenth century. Further displacements occurred in the nineteenth century as the southeastern groups were removed from their homelands. By 1817 about 5,000 Cherokee had been relocated to northwestern Arkansas. Disputes between them and the Osage arose over access to the bison hunting grounds to the west resulting in an Osage withdrawal to Kansas. By 1840, the majority of Cherokee had been forcibly removed to Indian Territory where they established a capital at Tahlequah. After the Civil War the Osage returned to Indian Territory and purchased reservation land from the Cherokee. Historic archaeological research in northeastern Oklahoma has been somewhat limited. Only two sites, both nineteenth century trading posts, have been excavated by archaeologists (see Wyckoff and Barr 1968; Baugh 1970). with this background in mind we should now turn to an examination of excavation strategies and cultural re-mains from the Dawson site. 16
Object Description
Description
Title | Dawson Site pt1 |
Digital Format | PDF, Adobe Reader required |
ODL electronic copy | Deposited by agency in print; scanned by Oklahoma Department of Libraries 8/2011 |
Rights and Permissions | This Oklahoma state government publication is provided for educational purposes under U.S. copyright law. Other usage requires permission of copyright holders. |
Language | English |
Full text | Tl300.7A669 No.5 C.4 THE DAWSON SITE »: ", ./ '-,1,\ \ (c-1/ Iii VJf\ r{ d V / -, ~ ~tl: :D~\"~:',,., , L'?~ "''.."... F',IA/,. I' '\ _# ~~ ,~, "). ' " ~J..~" ~, , ,,' I (~ @\'o;!': •• l! '> . I:~ o , 2 eM OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY PAPERS IN HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGY -NO.5, 1978 OKLAHOMA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING DIVISION THE DAWSON SITE (MY-140): AN ARCHAIC WORKSHOP IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA by Timothy G. Baugh OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY PAPERS IN HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGY, NUMBER V 1978 k TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ·vii Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. General Introduction and Background . . . 1 B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project. 2 C. The Setting. . 3 D. Archaeological Background. . · . 11 II. The Excavation and Recovered Material . . . · 17 A. Excavation strategy and Stratigraphy 17 B. Cultural Remains . . . . . 21 Lithic Trajectory Remains .. · . 21 1. Resource Acquirement. · 22 Lithic Material . 22 2. Initial Reduction . . • 24 Thick Biface I.... • • 25 3. Intermediate Reduction. . 26 Thick Biface II . . . 26 4. Primary Modification. 28 Thin Biface I . • 28 Thin Biface II. . . . . . . . . . . . 28 i • 6. Recycling Processes 39 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.) 5. Secondary Modification and Final Preparation .•......•........ 30 stemmed Biface-Projectile Points 30 stemmed and Unstemmed Bifaces- General utility, Fabricating, and/or Processing Tools 35 Recycled Implements ............... 42 Incidentally Modified Flake Implements-Flake Implement Ser ie s I 48 Intentionally Modified Flake Implements-Flake Implement Series II •.•.....•..•.......•.•••. 61 7. Lithic Trajectory Debitage .._...... 71 Lithic Debitage 73 8. Ground Stone Implements 76 III. Interpretative Analysis 80 A. Intra-Site Analysis 80 B. Inter-Site Analysis 94 C. A Commentary on Seriation 109 D. Summary Perspective of the Dawson site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III References Cited 112 ii Figure LIST OF FIGURES 1. Geomorphic Provinces of Northeastern Oklahoma. . . . •• ..••. 4 2. Biotic Districts of Northeastern Oklahoma. . . • • • • . . • • . • ... 6 3a. Correlation Between Climatic Episodes and Archaeological Periods in North-eastern Oklahoma. . . .. .... 8 3b. Key sites in Northeastern Oklahoma. 13 4. Dawson Site: contour Map . 18 Test Excavations and 5. Dawson Site: W5-S3 . . • . Views of Excavated Square 19 6. Dawson Site: Square Profiles 20 7. Lithic Reduction Sequence 27 8. Reduction Bifaces 29 9. Projectile Points 33 10. Dawson Site Artifacts 40 11. Other Dawson Site Artifacts . 44 12. Incidentally Modified Flake Implements. . 50 13. Intentionally Modified Flake Implements 62 14. Flake Types and Attributes . 74 15. Horizontal Distribution of Projectile Points. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 16. 84 Horizontal Distribution of Reduction Bifaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 iii 19. Locations of Archaeological sites 1n Northeastern Oklahoma . 96 LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd) Figure 17. Horizontal Distribution of Flake Implement Series I - Incidentally Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 86 18. Horizontal Distribution of Flake Implement Series II - Intentionally Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 87 20. Frequency of Projectile Points from Selected Sites in Northeastern Oklahoma 102 iv Table 10. 11. 12. LIS T OF TABLES 1. Provenience of Reduction Bifaces and projectile Points . . . . . . • . • . 37 2. Lithic Material of Reduction Bifaces and Projectile Points . • • . . . • . . . •. 38 3. Provenience of General utility, Fabri-cating and/or Processing Tools. 46 4. Lithic Material of General utility, Fabricating and/or Processing Tools . 47 5. Provenience of Incidentally Modified Flake Implements. . . . . . . . .. 59 6. Lithic Material of Incidentally Modified Flake Implements . . . 60 7. Provenience of Intentionally Modified Flake Implements. . . . . . . .. .... 70 8. Lithic Material of Intentionally Modified Flake Implements . . . 71 9. Provenience of Lithic Debitage. 77 Lithic Material of Lithic Debitage. 78 Artifact Concentration Indices by site Quarters . 81 Estimated Age Ranges for projectile Points . 82 13. Comparative Concentration Indices by Quadrant. . . . . . · · · · 88 14. Chi-square Tests. . · · · · 89 15. Flake Concentration Indices for Six Selected Squares. . . . . . . · · · · 91 v LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.) Table 16. Implement Concentration Indices . . . . . . . 92 17. Flake Concentration Indices by Quadrants for Six Selected Squares. . . . . .. .. 93 18. Cultural Sequence at the Packard site (My-66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 19. Cultural Sequence at the Pohly Site (My-54) . . . . . . . . . . . 99 20. Cultural Sequence at the Wolf Creek Site (My-72). . . . . . . . . . .... 106 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Any research of this magnitude involves a number of people. I would like to take this time to thank them for their individual contributions. Roy Dawson, the landowner, willingly gave his consent for the ex-cavations to be conducted. His interest in Oklahoma's prehistory made this project much easier to accomplish. The author participated in neither the survey nor the excavations. Obviously, this report could not have been completed without the diligent work of those in-dividuals involved. David R. Lopez, Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey, directed the overall project, both in the field and laboratory. The initial survey and excavation was capably performed by Joe Dale Baskus, Max Benge, Roger Burkhalter, Larry Childers, Scott Colbert, Pete Colwell, Jim Cox, Vanon Sun Chee Fore, Kenneth LaRue, Ricky Rutherford, Roger Saunders, Mike Talley, Jerry Toland, Steve Vanlandingham, and Charlie Younger. Laboratory space and facilities were provided by both the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey and the Oklahoma Archaeological Survey. The following individuals willingly gave of their time to discuss various aspects of lithic technology: . Sheila Bobalik, Richard Drass, Jerry Galm, David Hughes, David Lopez, Guy Muto, Larry Neal, Roger Saunders, and Don Wyckoff. Susan Vehik and Alan Acock aided with their know-ledge of statistical concepts. Hester Davis and Frank Schaumbach, Arkansas Arch-aeological Survey, willingly discussed comparative re-search and findings in Arkansas. Others who were willing to listen and make comments on various aspects of this report and otherwise provided assistance include Kent Buehler, Pat Harden, Jack Hofman, Mary Ann Holmes, Chris Lintz, Richard Pailes, Dan Rogers, Chuck Rohrbaugh, and Charles Wallis. Lois Sanders and Fanny Wigley provided day-to-day continuity throughout the writing of this report. vii viii The typing was efficiently and quickly performed by Debbie Blackstock. Photographic shooting, developing, and printing was accomplished by Casey Petrauskas, Re-production Supervisor, Kenneth Corder, photo section Foreman, and Photographers Ron Gordon and James Knight. Much of the drafting was expertly drawn by Gary Taylor, Current Planning Branch Illustrator. Site photogram-metry was ably accomplished by Oscar C. Curnutt, Assis-tant Survey Engineer, while Jerry Haynes, Survey Crew Chief o'utof the Tahlequah Office, accurately laid out the grid system. Bill Sommer, Reproduction Foreman, directed the final printing of this report. Constructive criticism of the initial manuscript was given by Rain Vehik and Don Wyckoff. Their time and efforts have vastly improved the quality of this report. Finally, David Lopez should be cited for his informative guidance and patience throughout this project. without his support, encouragement, and confidence this report may not have been completed. Of course, any errors contained herein belong en-tirely to the author. ABSTRACT The Dawson site, My-140, was excavated during a five week period in May and June, 1977, by the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey. The excavation was deemed necessary since the proposed alignment of the Lindsey-Mayes Bridge Project will endanger the site. The Dawson site is the first single component Archaic workshop to be found in northeastern Oklahoma. The cultural remains were analyzed in the framework of a lithic reduction trajectory to more fully determine the nature of the activities at the site. The primary util-ization of My-140 probably occurred about 4000 B.P. The Dawson site may have repeatedly served as a lithic collection and reduction station during the Middle to Late Archaic periods. This report also attempts to synthesize some of our knowledge concerning the pre-history of northeastern Oklahoma. ix I GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Communication and transportation systems are a neces-sary component of a prosperous national and local economy. The Oklahoma Department of Transportation plays a vital role in the state by continually attempting to uphold high quality standards for the Sooner highway systems. As a part of this program the construction of the Lindsey- Mayes bridge was proposed in northeast Oklahoma. When planning and surveying of the new alignment revealed that the Dawson site, My-140, was threatened, the Oklahoma De-partment of Transportation in cooperation with the state Archaeologist deemed excavation to be advisable. This was deemed necessary since My-140 was the first single component Archaic lithic workshop known for this region. Thus, a team of archaeologists from the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey commenced such work in January, 1976. A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey In the following pages we will examine the Dawson site's cultural remains and their contextual associations. Although representing a small segment of Oklahoma's cul-ture history, when tied into other archaeological sites a larger panorama begins to emerge. To accomplish this end, this report is divided into three sections. The first of these deals with general information concerning the Dawson site, as well as the natural setting and arch-aeological background. The second section is concerned with excavation strategies and the recovered cultural materials. The final section provides an intrasite and intersite interpretative analysis. The major objectives of the Oklahoma Department of Transportation is the planning, construction and main-tenance of quality roadways within the state. Yet, they are also cognizant of the benefits that the conservation and preservation of the state's prehistoric and historic cultural resources provide the people of Oklahoma. As a result a few archaeological investigations were sponsored by the Department of Transportation during the 1950's (cf. Shaeffer 1965 and 1966). However, these projects were terminated in 1962. 1 2 In 1972, the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Sur-vey (OHAS) was formed through the efforts of Dr. Robert E. Bell, university of Oklahoma, Don G. wyckoff, State Arch-aeologist, the O. U. Board of Regents as well as Chester Brooks, Director of the Oklahoma Department of Highways, Monty C. Murphy, Planning Engineer, and Clifford Nelms, Rural Transportation Engineer. The primary task of the OHAS is the management of Oklahoma's cultural resources when directly affected by pending highway construction. Archaeological materials allow us to investigate the activities of past popula-tions and thereby to determine their cultural identity. The final objective is to provide the people of Oklahoma with a better understanding of their past by the analysis and reporting of these materials. Be that as it may, the end result begins much more modestly. When proposed highway projects are advanced an archaeological team conducts an initial survey. This activity is essential for both highway construction and conservation concerns since not all sites can be ex-cavated. Some sites may not provide any significantly new information or data while others are inherently more valuable. Preferring to concentrate on the latter, an archaeologist can best evaluate a site by test ex-cavations. Thus if realignment is not feasible and the initial survey indicates a possibly significant site, test squares may be placed in strategic locations. Test excavations determine the vertical and horizontal limits of a site as well as the number of components or dis-tinct occupations. If such test excavations demonstrate the site's importance, more extensive work may follow. Because of their large size, the techniques involved, and the operating budget few sites are excavated in their en-tirety. Therefore, each site must be approached with a specific problem in mind. B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project The Dawson site was first reported in December, 1976, by David Lopez and Vanon Sun Chee Fore. The site was discovered during an intensive field survey of the pro-posed Lindsey-Mayes Bridge project. Recovered cultural remains included biface fragments, modified and unmod-ified flakes as well as general workshop debris. This material led to the preliminary belief that My-140 rep-resented a single component, middle to late Archaic, lithic workshop. Since few single component sites re-lating to this time period were known, evaluative testing was considered necessary. The site is on a bluff overlooking the Neosho River and covers from two to three acres of land. In January, 197~ two test squares were excavated. More intensive testing occurred in May, 1977,when sixteen new squares were excavated. The bridge project1s centerline was used as the primary axis of the grid system with a datum point established at station 129 (see Figure 4). Including both testing periods a total of eighteen 5 x 5 foot squares were excavated in arbitrary four inch levels. C. The Setting The Dawson site is approximately seven miles south-east of Pryor Creek, Oklahoma. Found in the Neosho Lowland geomorphic province (see Figuxe 1) an inter-mixture of deciduous trees and prairie grasses dotted with varicolored chert nodules cover the site. In 1819, Thomas Nuttall traveled up the Neosho River and noted that above II a bend called the Eagle i s nest ••• a facade of calcareous rock appears, inlaid with beds of whitish hornstone" (Nuttall 1905:241). These Mississippian lime-stone formations are interbedded with outcrops of Keokuk and Moorefield chert and are still present today along the banks of the Neosho River. One soil series~ Eldorado, is reported for the im-mediate vicinity of the Dawson site. within the site perimeter this soil is relatively shallow and well drained. The primary parent material consists of weath-ered cherty limestone which decomposed while covered with native grasses (Polone, Newland! and Swafford 1975: 17). Gray and Roozitalab (1976:28-30) and Gray and Stahnks (1970:10-11) classify the Eldorado soil series as Pa1eudu1ts belonging to the order of U1tisols (mineral soils with an argillic horizon). They are characterized as occurring in humid climates with a fairly even dis-tribution of rainfall, but with a seasonal cycle of limited aridity. such soils are slightly acidic and have a 3 Figure 1 GEOMORPHIC PROVINCES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA (After Curtis and Ham 1972) ,------1 ~,, -------- ..,I 1:::::::1 OZARK PLATEAU ~ NEOSHO LOWLAND k:~~fJCLAREMORE CUESTA PLAINS 1111111!1!1!11:::1 EASTERN SANDSTONE CUESTA PLAINS BOSTON MOUNTAINS low organic content resulting from a forest vegetation (Gray and Roozitalab 1976:28). The contemporary Dawson site is on the boundary of the oak-hickory forest and tall grass prairie (Shelford 1963:19, 307, and 330) or the Ozark and Osage Savanna biotic districts (Blair and Hubbell 1938:427). Figure two depicts the range of these biotic districts in north-eastern Oklahoma. The Dawson site occurs in the Springfield Struc-tural Plain (Huffman 1958:11). Topographically this area is a deeply dissected plateau with flat divides separated by young, V-shaped stream·valleys. These rivers and streams form a dendritic drainage pattern across northeastern Oklahoma. This evidence seems to indicate a fluctuating envir-onmental scene. Unfortunately intensive palynOlogical, paleoclimatological, and biogeographical studies have not been conducted in this part of Oklahoma. However, corresponding research in surrounding areas may provide a generalized understanding of paleoecological processes operating in northeast Oklahoma (cf. Dort and Jones 1970j Gruger 1973j King 1973j King and Lindsay 1976j and Wen-dorf and Hester 1975). The present day galleria forest in northeastern Oklahoma may be only 2,000 to 3,000 years old. Paleo-climatologists have divided the Holocene epoch into several climatic episodes (see Figure 3a). The earliest of these periods is known as the Pre-Boreal which began about 10,000 years ago (Baerreis and Bryson 1975a:214). Prior to this the Pleistocene epoch was dominant. In the northern regions the Pleistocene was marked by glacial advances and retreats. At the same time, however, the Southern Plains and Oklahoma experienced alternating pluvial (cool and wet) and interval (less moist) periods (Wendorf 1975:12). In association with these either a boreal coniferous forest dominated by Pinus and Picea or a pine savanna made its appearance on the southern Plains (Oldfield and Schoenwetter 1975:149-157). Afterward, during the Holocene a warmer, dryer interval prevailed throughout the prairie-plains region. During this interval the boreal forests were retreating 5 1'f'!glire 2 BIOTIC DISTRICTS of NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA (After Blair and Hubbell 1938) ~~_, , In{U r------------- /' ~;1~.>:r,iT \ ~t~~ \ ,i , I~ L' "'.'"'\..--......-. --, I,, ·v~•.•\.1.."..-.'-_,-~ _-..; I ~I fll~ I "7 II '-mI II ::;::,;; ,--------1 --~ET''l~~ -, -------------: ' - ~ '-J i SOZARK DISTRICT ~ CHEROKEE PRAIRIE DISTRICT OJ] OSAGE SAVANNA 01 STRICT northward, being replaced by an expanding grassland com-posed of Compositae and Gramineae (wright 1970:166-169). As the flora shifted so too did the fauna. Bison moved toward the Atlantic, later to be isolated in pockets east of the Mississippi. The Holocene epoch contrasts strongly with the Pleis-tocene. Generally climatic conditions became somewhat warmer as the glaciers retreated northward. Yet our un-derstanding of the micro-climate for the last 10,000 years in northeast Oklahoma is minimal at best. This results primarily from the vast amount of regional variation present during these years. liTheactual character of the climatic episodes must be reconstructed from other evidence, bearing in mind that when it is colder in one region the atmospheric mechanics may require that it be warmer in anotherll (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:213). The Ozark biotic district is presently character-ized by an oak-hickory forest with a somewhat barren forest floor. However, several species of shrubs (such as sassafras) may also be present. On steeper slopes and in deeper ravines there tends to be a balanced water supply and hence a more mesic plant community consisting of sugar maple, hop hornbeam, white oak, chinquapin oak, redbud and flowering dogwood. Because of a more balanced water supply the forest floor is carpeted with herbaceous mesophytes such as wild ginger, yellow dogtooth violets, bloodroot, may applep and maidenhair fern. In moister sections var ious mosses, ferns and liverworts are also common. The exposed grayish limestone and chert bluffs sup-port a more scattered vegetation including junipers or red cedars, blackjack, and winged elm. Here the soil is quite thin and only the rock crevices contain enough deposits to support plant life. Accordingly, ground cover is also relatively sparse with roc~ dwelling her-baceous plants such as columbines and purple cliff brakes being representative. The flood plains of the larger stream valleys sup-port a more open forest consisting of silver maple, American elm, red birch, cottonwood, and sycamore as well as linden and the ubiquitous oaks. Along most 7 A.D/a. C BP '---------- , 1900 50 I 1850 I 100 I 1700 I 250 I I 1550 I 400 1500 I 450 1450 I 500 1400 I 550 I 1250 I 700 1200 I 750 1 1000 I 950 900 I 1050 I 750 I 1200 I 260 I 1690 I I AD.I I 1950 B.C. I 50 I 2000 I 940 I 2890 I 1550 I 3500 I I 2730 I 4680 I / I 4030 I 5980 I 4550 / 6500 I 5100 I 7050 I 578C I 7730 I I 6500 J 8450 I 7190 I 9140 I 7700 I 9650 I 8050 /10,000 CLIMATIC EPISODES CULTURAL VARIANTS for NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA ~------------------~---------------- Caddo IV Modern Cherokee Historic Osage I ! Caddo II I Spiro Focus --I Gibson 1----------+-----I ---1 \ Neo-At/antic ' ! Harlan Camplex I Neo-Boreal ---~ / 1Fullon I F:'ffee Neosho L Focus Ir-- I Caddo III I Caddo I Scond ic \ (Grove C Focus) i, I i I L ate I Woodland ,! I Archaic L_ I I ---.J,i ------------------f (Grove B Focus) /I ---- .-.-----------._--.--i I I I I 'II r----------.-------If M/d die , I Atlantic IV I Ar c oa/c i ~ (Grove A Focus) " Atlantic III III III I I I Sub-Atlantic Sub-Boreal Archa/c Atlantic " A tlantic I Early Boreal " Boreal I Pre-Boreal Figure 30 CORRELATION BETWEEN CLIMATIC EPISODES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERIODS IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA stream banks willows gently spread their branches while either a soft, green blanket of grass or a scaley, brown coverlet of patinated chert cobbles may occur (Blair and Hubbell 1938: 427-428). Directly adjacent to this biome and near the vicinity of the Dawson site is the Osage Savanna district (Blair and Hubbell 1938:433-434). This area, primarily in the Claremore Cuesta Plains geomorphic province, is composed of broad shale flatlands with steep-sided hills and ridges of resistant Pennsylvanian sandstone and limestone (see Figure 1). Dry scrubby forest vegetation, including blackjack, post oak and black hickory, cover the hills and escarp-ments. However, larger, more mature trees such as Amer-ican elm, slippery elm, spotted oak, pin oak, hackberries, as well as red birch, black willow and buttonbush occur in the flood plain. Washington Irving toured this region in 1832 and provided us with a description of just such a forest. We were overshadowed by lofty trees with straight, smooth trunks, like stately columns; and as the glancing rays of the sun shone through the transparent leaves, tinted with the many-colored hues of autumn, I was reminded of the effect of sunshine among the stained windows and clustering columns of a Gothic cathedral. Indeed there is a grandeur and solemnity in our spacious forests of the West .•• (Irving 1956:41) On the flat to rolling shale plains, grassland corn-munities dominate. Tall grasses such as bluejoint, prairie beardgrass, indiangrass, and switchgrass are most abund-ant. Herbaceous plants include false indigo, blazing stars, starwort, sunflower, and sage. Occasional persim-mon groves occur on the prairie as well. A third biotic district/the Cherokee Prairie/is also found in northeastern Oklahoma. It is distinguished from the Osage Savanna by more aridity. This is a mixed grassland with both tall and short varieties occurring in the thinner soil of the limestone scarp. The principal 9 Gramineae are buffalo-grass, side-oats grama, and silver beardgrass. Yucca plants, prickly pear, and occasional persimmon groves are scattered throughout the dry prairie. The average annual precipitation for Mayes County is about 40 inches. Most occurs during the late spring and early autumn. Snowfall generally accounts for only one-fourth or less of this amount. While traveling with an escort of Rangers, washington Irving observed an autumn thunderstorm on the Osage Savanna. In crossing a prairie of moderate extent, rendered little better than a slippery bog by the recent showers, we were overtaken by a violent thunder-gust. The rain came rat-tling upon us in torrents, and spattered up like steam along the ground; the whole land-scape was suddenly wrapped in gloom that gave a vivid effect to the intense sheets of lightning, while the thunder seemed to burst over our very heads, and was reverberated by the groves and forests that checkered and skirted the prairie. Man and beast were so pelted, drenched, and confounded, that the line was thrown in complete confusion; some of the horses were so frightened as to be almost unmanageable, and our scattered cavalcade looked like a tempest-tossed fleet, driven hither and thither, at the mercy of wind and wave (Irving 1956:101-102). This region is characterized by a humid, warm-temperate continental climate. The mean annual tem-perature is 600F. Monthly averages vary between about 360F in December to 800F in August. During the summer, temperatures soar over the 100 F mark about ten times. Conversely, about ten days out of each winter remain at or below freezing. The first frost may be as early as October 6 while the last freeze may be as late as April 7. The average growing season, however, is about 205 days (Polone, Newland, and Swafford 1975:83-84). Galleria forests and grasslands support a wide array of wildlife. Acorns, oak twigs, bark and cambium all provide sources of food. Birds such as the greater prairie chicken, turkey, wood duck, American avocets, 10 cranes, and various species of blackbirds were commonly -sighted by early Euro-American writers who visited the pra1r1e and forest regions of northeastern Oklahoma. Charles Latrobe, who traveled with Washington Irving, wrote the following lines concerning the fall habits of the prairie chicken. Their wariness at this time is extreme; and the slightest indication of the ap-proach of man even at a great distance, is noticed by the cock; who, perched on the topmost twig elongates his neck and peeps first on one side, and then on another, with the most provoking caution (Latrobe 1836:249). There are over 250 species of birds which may be found in this region (Sutton 1967). On the other hand, only 63 species of mammals in-habit the northeastern section of the state (Hellack 1974:144-146). These include bison, black bear, badger, white-tailed deer, bobcat, mountain lion, mink, red wolf, beaver, southern flying squirrel, as well as the gray and fox squirrels, woodchuck, eastern chipmunk, black tailed jackrabbit, swamp rabbit, and others. Rep-tiles too are frequently encountered (see McDermott 1940:156 and 208; Engbretson 1974:103-118). Such a wide array of plant and animal life made this area a desirable locale for various prehistoric groups. D. Archaeological Background Most regional discussions of prehistoric chronol-ogies begin with a Paleo-Indian or Big Game Hunting Tradition (13,000 B.P. - 10,000 B.P.). Skeletal remains of the forest browsing mastodon (Mammut americanus) have been recovered from the Three Forks locale, but, at the same time, no cultural materials have been found in association with these remains. Fluted lanceolate points are considered representative of this tradition. How-ever, only scattered surface finds occur in the Ozarks (see Chapman 1948; Scholtz 1969; Wood and McMillan 1969). Even though the more western sites relating to this 11 tradition tend to indicate a hunting subsistence strategy, gathering activities may have played an equally if not more important role (see Alland, et. al. 1968) which continued in the following Archaic period. The Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 2,000 B.P.) is the first major period represented in northeast Oklahoma. Ecolog-ical shifts during this time period have led many arch-aeologists to conclude that more intensive exploitation patterns were being employed. This situation resulted in a great deal of regional variation. Three Archaic sub-periods, Early, Middle and Late, may be defined for northeastern Oklahoma. Be that as it may, intensive ecological studies are needed in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of Archaic adaptations. The Early Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 6,500 B.P.) is characterized by hunting implements which may be con-sidered transitional between the Paleo-Indian and later Archaic adaptations (Griffin 1964:225-229). Projectile points, with ground stems and bases as well as beveled and/or serrated blades are most typical. such forms as Dalton, Agate Basin, Big Sandy and Johnson are represen-tative. Known campsites, such as Rodgers Shelter, Missouri, were occupied for relatively short periods of time (McMillan 1976:223-224). This period has been correlated with the Pre-Boreal, Boreal I and II as well as Atlantic I-III climatic episodes (see Figures 3a and 3b). At the present our understanding of these post-glacial episodes is even more limited than that of later periods. Thus we have few if any insights into the climatic process operating in northeast Oklahoma during this time (Bryson, Baerreis and Wendland 1970:47). A second major economic strategy, the Middle Archaic (6,500 B.P. - 3,500 B.P.), evolved between 7,000 to 6,000 B.P. Former nomadic hunting and gathering bands shifted to seasonal exploitation cycles of a localized area. Even more variation in implement form is apparent during this period. Expanding base points such as Marcos, Edgewood, Duncan and Hannah are representative. This economic shift is reflected in base camps being occupied longer and utilized more intensively by apparently larger groups. For northeastern Oklahoma this period has been 12 Figure 3b KEY SITES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA w~~:~-rr;-:· v • , "~' '"rt ~ \ J/~i:v ~tr\\~, I rJ~ _~1_- ~ '\ (OOlogah Res. V~/ ..A- _ ., ,r-I• / ~ ~ I a:. .Ji'" / I ( .1 ( I • I • \ l 1/f'A-~~ L . 12. r---------: ~,, ---------. ,, 1. DAWSON (My-140) 2. KERR DAM (My-48) 3. WOLF CREEK (My - 72) 4. JUG HILL (My - 18) 5. PACKARD (My - 66) 6. POHL Y (My - 54) 7. REED (01 - 11) 8. LAWRENCE (Nw - 6) 9. JENSEN (My - 32) 10. LILLIE CREEK (01 - 41) 11. HUFFAKER (01 - 12) 12. HUGHES (Ms - 4) 13. HARLAN (Ch - 6) 14. NORMAN (Wg - 2) designated Grove A Focus (Baerreis 1951~ Bell and Baerreis 1951:10-14). Parallel and expanding stem projectile points, hafted scrapers, choppers, and small grinding stones are implements associated with this period (Baer-reis 1951:65-66). The beginning of the Middle Archaic is associated with Atlantic III and IV which may be correlated with expanding grasslands and warmer temperatures on the Plains (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:57-58). The Late Archaic (3,500 B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is bas-ically a continuation of the Middle Archaic techno-economic pattern. The major difference is the exploitation tech-niques may be even more intensive. Grove B Focus rep-resents the earlier portion of this period (Baerreis 1951; Bell and Baerreis 1951:13-14). The later Grove C Focus is somewhat problematical. In some regions it persisted until relatively late while in other areas outside influences seem to have gradually transformed it into a formative Woodland culture. The Late Archaic has a predominance of contracting stem dart points such as Gary and Langtry. The initiation of this period is correlated with the Sub-Boreal climatic episode which is characterized by less moisture and cooler temperatures on the Plains (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:60). However, the following Sub-Atlantic episode is associated with more moderate precipitation and temperatures as well as being correlated with the Woodland period. The Woodland (2,OOO B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is assoc-iated with a gradual shift toward part-time horticul-ture. According to Griffin (1978:63) IIIttook from roughly 1,000 B.C. to A. D. 700 for agriculture to be-come a basic subsistence factor, and the populations in the East continued their dependence on hunting and gath-ering skills developed during the long Archaic period.1I Pottery and small projectile or arrow points represent the major technological changes. In northeastern Okla-homa the Cooper Focus is considered intrusive (Bell and Baerreis 1951:27-33) while the Delaware A Focus is be-lieved to be a local development out of Grove C Focus (Purrington 1970:531-539). 14 The Mississippian Tradition represents a second in-trusion into northeastern Oklahoma. The Harlan Complex, or Caddo I period, is an early Caddoan manifestation and is represented by a primary mound center at the Harlan site, Cherokee County (Bell 1972) with possible second-ary centers at Reed and Lillie Creek in Delaware County. These centers are generally associated with satellite communities such as the Jensen site in Mayes County (Wyckoff 1971:57-72). The political organization of these people appears to be a theocratic rank society as surmised from the elaborate goods placed in some but not all burials. The economic basis of these centers is not well understood at the present, but they seem to be based on a mixed pursuit of horticulture, hunting, and collect-ing. A florescence occurred during the succeeding spiro Focus or Caddo II (wyckoff 1971:72). During this time the Harlan center declines and is eclipsed by the Norman and Hughes mound centers. Reed and Lillie Creek continue through this period, with Huffaker being added, as satel-lite communities. The spiro Focus is followed by the Fort Coffee Focus, or Caddo III and IV, which represents a Caddoan contrac-tion. Of the previous centers all but Norman disappear. Burial associations during these periods indicate a more egalitarian based society with a number of Plains traits, such as bison scapula hoes, gaining acceptance. Paleo-climatologists have speculated that a climatic shift to a period of less precipitation may have occurred during the Pacific I episode in the Plains region (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:64). Related to this clim-atic shift, Plains influences begin to penetrate into eastern Oklahoma (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:2l6; Wyckoff 1971:154-164). "viewing the Gibson-Fulton transition from the perspective of eastern Oklahoma, it would appear that environmental factors may be operative in producing the shift from one period to the succeeding one" (Baer-reis and Bryson 1965b:72). Between 450 B.P. and 250 B.P. the climax region for the Fort Coffee Focus centered on the Arkansas. The processes of culture change during this time became even more complex according to Baerreis and Bryson (1965a: 217) as the onset of the Neo-Boreal episode and European contact began at about the same time. 15 The Neo-Boreal is sometimes referred to as the Lit-tle Ice Age as glaciers began to reappear in the Rocky Mountains and other parts of North America. "It is likely that the growing season was shortened, and that the sum-mers were cooler in the upper Midwest" (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:2l7). About 1850 these conditions shifted to our present climatic patterns. Somewhat further north and east of the Fort Coffee Focus was the Neosho Focus. Recovered cultural remains from Fort Coffee and Neosho components indicate a close relationship between the two. Indeed Wyckoff (197l:l96) comments: "That these two manifestations are contemp-oraneous is evident. That they are the same people is a distinct possibility." Exactly who these people were is somewhat speculative. There are two possibilities. During the historic period the wichita are known to have occupied this region (Newcomb and Field 1967:246-250). Thus the Fort Coffee and Neosho Focus may be correlated with the wichita or with an intermediary Caddoan group who traded with the wichita. Be that as it may, the wichita were displaced from this area by the Osage in the eighteenth century. Further displacements occurred in the nineteenth century as the southeastern groups were removed from their homelands. By 1817 about 5,000 Cherokee had been relocated to northwestern Arkansas. Disputes between them and the Osage arose over access to the bison hunting grounds to the west resulting in an Osage withdrawal to Kansas. By 1840, the majority of Cherokee had been forcibly removed to Indian Territory where they established a capital at Tahlequah. After the Civil War the Osage returned to Indian Territory and purchased reservation land from the Cherokee. Historic archaeological research in northeastern Oklahoma has been somewhat limited. Only two sites, both nineteenth century trading posts, have been excavated by archaeologists (see Wyckoff and Barr 1968; Baugh 1970). with this background in mind we should now turn to an examination of excavation strategies and cultural re-mains from the Dawson site. 16 |
Date created | 2011-08-11 |
Date modified | 2011-08-11 |