Dawson site (My-140) : an archaic workshop in northeastern Oklahoma

              Tl300.7A669 No.5 C.4
THE DAWSON SITE
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OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL
SURVEY PAPERS IN HIGHWAY
ARCHAEOLOGY -NO.5, 1978
OKLAHOMA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING DIVISION
THE DAWSON SITE (MY-140):
AN ARCHAIC WORKSHOP IN
NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
by
Timothy G. Baugh
OKLAHOMA HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
PAPERS IN HIGHWAY ARCHAEOLOGY, NUMBER V
1978
k
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ·vii
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological
Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. General Introduction and Background . . . 1
B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project. 2
C. The Setting. . 3
D. Archaeological Background. . · . 11
II. The Excavation and Recovered Material . . . · 17
A. Excavation strategy and Stratigraphy 17
B. Cultural Remains . . . . . 21
Lithic Trajectory Remains .. · . 21
1. Resource Acquirement. · 22
Lithic Material . 22
2. Initial Reduction . . • 24
Thick Biface I.... • • 25
3. Intermediate Reduction. . 26
Thick Biface II . . . 26
4. Primary Modification. 28
Thin Biface I . • 28
Thin Biface II. . . . . . . . . . . . 28
i
•
6. Recycling Processes 39
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.)
5. Secondary Modification and
Final Preparation .•......•........ 30
stemmed Biface-Projectile Points 30
stemmed and Unstemmed Bifaces-
General utility, Fabricating,
and/or Processing Tools 35
Recycled Implements ............... 42
Incidentally Modified Flake
Implements-Flake Implement
Ser ie s I 48
Intentionally Modified Flake
Implements-Flake Implement
Series II •.•.....•..•.......•.•••. 61
7. Lithic Trajectory Debitage .._...... 71
Lithic Debitage 73
8. Ground Stone Implements 76
III. Interpretative Analysis 80
A. Intra-Site Analysis 80
B. Inter-Site Analysis 94
C. A Commentary on Seriation 109
D. Summary Perspective of the Dawson
site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
References Cited 112
ii
Figure
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Geomorphic Provinces of Northeastern
Oklahoma. . . . •• ..••. 4
2. Biotic Districts of Northeastern
Oklahoma. . . • • • • . . • • . • ... 6
3a. Correlation Between Climatic Episodes
and Archaeological Periods in North-eastern
Oklahoma. . . .. .... 8
3b. Key sites in Northeastern Oklahoma. 13
4. Dawson Site:
contour Map . 18
Test Excavations and
5. Dawson Site:
W5-S3 . . • .
Views of Excavated Square
19
6. Dawson Site: Square Profiles 20
7. Lithic Reduction Sequence 27
8. Reduction Bifaces 29
9. Projectile Points 33
10. Dawson Site Artifacts 40
11. Other Dawson Site Artifacts . 44
12. Incidentally Modified Flake Implements. . 50
13. Intentionally Modified Flake Implements 62
14. Flake Types and Attributes . 74
15. Horizontal Distribution of Projectile
Points. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
16.
84
Horizontal Distribution of Reduction
Bifaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
iii
19. Locations of Archaeological sites 1n
Northeastern Oklahoma . 96
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
Figure
17. Horizontal Distribution of Flake
Implement Series I - Incidentally
Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 86
18. Horizontal Distribution of Flake
Implement Series II - Intentionally
Modified Flakes . . . . . . . . . 87
20. Frequency of Projectile Points from
Selected Sites in Northeastern Oklahoma 102
iv
Table
10.
11.
12.
LIS T OF TABLES
1. Provenience of Reduction Bifaces and
projectile Points . . . . . . • . • . 37
2. Lithic Material of Reduction Bifaces
and Projectile Points . • • . . . • . . . •. 38
3. Provenience of General utility, Fabri-cating
and/or Processing Tools. 46
4. Lithic Material of General utility,
Fabricating and/or Processing Tools .
47
5. Provenience of Incidentally Modified
Flake Implements. . . . . . . . .. 59
6. Lithic Material of Incidentally
Modified Flake Implements . . . 60
7. Provenience of Intentionally Modified
Flake Implements. . . . . . . .. .... 70
8. Lithic Material of Intentionally
Modified Flake Implements . . . 71
9. Provenience of Lithic Debitage. 77
Lithic Material of Lithic Debitage. 78
Artifact Concentration Indices by
site Quarters . 81
Estimated Age Ranges for projectile
Points . 82
13. Comparative Concentration Indices by
Quadrant. . . . . . · · · · 88
14. Chi-square Tests. . · · · · 89
15. Flake Concentration Indices for Six
Selected Squares. . . . . . . · · · · 91
v
LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.)
Table
16. Implement Concentration Indices . . . . . . . 92
17. Flake Concentration Indices by Quadrants
for Six Selected Squares. . . . . .. .. 93
18. Cultural Sequence at the Packard site
(My-66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
19. Cultural Sequence at the Pohly Site
(My-54) . . . . . . . . . . . 99
20. Cultural Sequence at the Wolf Creek
Site (My-72). . . . . . . . . . .... 106
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Any research of this magnitude involves a number
of people. I would like to take this time to thank
them for their individual contributions. Roy Dawson,
the landowner, willingly gave his consent for the ex-cavations
to be conducted. His interest in Oklahoma's
prehistory made this project much easier to accomplish.
The author participated in neither the survey nor
the excavations. Obviously, this report could not have
been completed without the diligent work of those in-dividuals
involved. David R. Lopez, Oklahoma Highway
Archaeological Survey, directed the overall project,
both in the field and laboratory. The initial survey
and excavation was capably performed by Joe Dale Baskus,
Max Benge, Roger Burkhalter, Larry Childers, Scott Colbert,
Pete Colwell, Jim Cox, Vanon Sun Chee Fore, Kenneth LaRue,
Ricky Rutherford, Roger Saunders, Mike Talley, Jerry
Toland, Steve Vanlandingham, and Charlie Younger.
Laboratory space and facilities were provided by
both the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey and the
Oklahoma Archaeological Survey.
The following individuals willingly gave of their
time to discuss various aspects of lithic technology: .
Sheila Bobalik, Richard Drass, Jerry Galm, David Hughes,
David Lopez, Guy Muto, Larry Neal, Roger Saunders, and
Don Wyckoff.
Susan Vehik and Alan Acock aided with their know-ledge
of statistical concepts.
Hester Davis and Frank Schaumbach, Arkansas Arch-aeological
Survey, willingly discussed comparative re-search
and findings in Arkansas.
Others who were willing to listen and make comments
on various aspects of this report and otherwise provided
assistance include Kent Buehler, Pat Harden, Jack Hofman,
Mary Ann Holmes, Chris Lintz, Richard Pailes, Dan Rogers,
Chuck Rohrbaugh, and Charles Wallis. Lois Sanders and
Fanny Wigley provided day-to-day continuity throughout
the writing of this report.
vii
viii
The typing was efficiently and quickly performed by
Debbie Blackstock. Photographic shooting, developing,
and printing was accomplished by Casey Petrauskas, Re-production
Supervisor, Kenneth Corder, photo section
Foreman, and Photographers Ron Gordon and James Knight.
Much of the drafting was expertly drawn by Gary Taylor,
Current Planning Branch Illustrator. Site photogram-metry
was ably accomplished by Oscar C. Curnutt, Assis-tant
Survey Engineer, while Jerry Haynes, Survey Crew
Chief o'utof the Tahlequah Office, accurately laid out
the grid system. Bill Sommer, Reproduction Foreman,
directed the final printing of this report.
Constructive criticism of the initial manuscript
was given by Rain Vehik and Don Wyckoff. Their time and
efforts have vastly improved the quality of this report.
Finally, David Lopez should be cited for his informative
guidance and patience throughout this project. without
his support, encouragement, and confidence this report
may not have been completed.
Of course, any errors contained herein belong en-tirely
to the author.
ABSTRACT
The Dawson site, My-140, was excavated during a
five week period in May and June, 1977, by the Oklahoma
Highway Archaeological Survey. The excavation was
deemed necessary since the proposed alignment of the
Lindsey-Mayes Bridge Project will endanger the site.
The Dawson site is the first single component Archaic
workshop to be found in northeastern Oklahoma. The
cultural remains were analyzed in the framework of a
lithic reduction trajectory to more fully determine the
nature of the activities at the site. The primary util-ization
of My-140 probably occurred about 4000 B.P.
The Dawson site may have repeatedly served as a lithic
collection and reduction station during the Middle to
Late Archaic periods. This report also attempts to
synthesize some of our knowledge concerning the pre-history
of northeastern Oklahoma.
ix
I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Communication and transportation systems are a neces-sary
component of a prosperous national and local economy.
The Oklahoma Department of Transportation plays a vital
role in the state by continually attempting to uphold
high quality standards for the Sooner highway systems.
As a part of this program the construction of the Lindsey-
Mayes bridge was proposed in northeast Oklahoma. When
planning and surveying of the new alignment revealed that
the Dawson site, My-140, was threatened, the Oklahoma De-partment
of Transportation in cooperation with the state
Archaeologist deemed excavation to be advisable. This
was deemed necessary since My-140 was the first single
component Archaic lithic workshop known for this region.
Thus, a team of archaeologists from the Oklahoma Highway
Archaeological Survey commenced such work in January,
1976.
A. The Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Survey
In the following pages we will examine the Dawson
site's cultural remains and their contextual associations.
Although representing a small segment of Oklahoma's cul-ture
history, when tied into other archaeological sites
a larger panorama begins to emerge. To accomplish this
end, this report is divided into three sections. The
first of these deals with general information concerning
the Dawson site, as well as the natural setting and arch-aeological
background. The second section is concerned
with excavation strategies and the recovered cultural
materials. The final section provides an intrasite and
intersite interpretative analysis.
The major objectives of the Oklahoma Department of
Transportation is the planning, construction and main-tenance
of quality roadways within the state. Yet, they
are also cognizant of the benefits that the conservation
and preservation of the state's prehistoric and historic
cultural resources provide the people of Oklahoma.
As a result a few archaeological investigations
were sponsored by the Department of Transportation during
the 1950's (cf. Shaeffer 1965 and 1966). However, these
projects were terminated in 1962.
1
2
In 1972, the Oklahoma Highway Archaeological Sur-vey
(OHAS) was formed through the efforts of Dr. Robert E.
Bell, university of Oklahoma, Don G. wyckoff, State Arch-aeologist,
the O. U. Board of Regents as well as Chester
Brooks, Director of the Oklahoma Department of Highways,
Monty C. Murphy, Planning Engineer, and Clifford Nelms,
Rural Transportation Engineer.
The primary task of the OHAS is the management of
Oklahoma's cultural resources when directly affected by
pending highway construction. Archaeological materials
allow us to investigate the activities of past popula-tions
and thereby to determine their cultural identity.
The final objective is to provide the people of Oklahoma
with a better understanding of their past by the analysis
and reporting of these materials.
Be that as it may, the end result begins much more
modestly. When proposed highway projects are advanced
an archaeological team conducts an initial survey. This
activity is essential for both highway construction and
conservation concerns since not all sites can be ex-cavated.
Some sites may not provide any significantly
new information or data while others are inherently
more valuable. Preferring to concentrate on the latter,
an archaeologist can best evaluate a site by test ex-cavations.
Thus if realignment is not feasible and the
initial survey indicates a possibly significant site,
test squares may be placed in strategic locations. Test
excavations determine the vertical and horizontal limits
of a site as well as the number of components or dis-tinct
occupations.
If such test excavations demonstrate the site's
importance, more extensive work may follow. Because
of their large size, the techniques involved, and the
operating budget few sites are excavated in their en-tirety.
Therefore, each site must be approached with
a specific problem in mind.
B. The Dawson Site Salvage Project
The Dawson site was first reported in December, 1976,
by David Lopez and Vanon Sun Chee Fore. The site was
discovered during an intensive field survey of the pro-posed
Lindsey-Mayes Bridge project. Recovered cultural
remains included biface fragments, modified and unmod-ified
flakes as well as general workshop debris. This
material led to the preliminary belief that My-140 rep-resented
a single component, middle to late Archaic,
lithic workshop. Since few single component sites re-lating
to this time period were known, evaluative testing
was considered necessary.
The site is on a bluff overlooking the Neosho River
and covers from two to three acres of land. In January,
197~ two test squares were excavated. More intensive
testing occurred in May, 1977,when sixteen new squares
were excavated. The bridge project1s centerline was used
as the primary axis of the grid system with a datum point
established at station 129 (see Figure 4). Including
both testing periods a total of eighteen 5 x 5 foot
squares were excavated in arbitrary four inch levels.
C. The Setting
The Dawson site is approximately seven miles south-east
of Pryor Creek, Oklahoma. Found in the Neosho
Lowland geomorphic province (see Figuxe 1) an inter-mixture
of deciduous trees and prairie grasses dotted
with varicolored chert nodules cover the site. In 1819,
Thomas Nuttall traveled up the Neosho River and noted
that above II a bend called the Eagle i s nest ••• a facade
of calcareous rock appears, inlaid with beds of whitish
hornstone" (Nuttall 1905:241). These Mississippian lime-stone
formations are interbedded with outcrops of Keokuk
and Moorefield chert and are still present today along
the banks of the Neosho River.
One soil series~ Eldorado, is reported for the im-mediate
vicinity of the Dawson site. within the site
perimeter this soil is relatively shallow and well
drained. The primary parent material consists of weath-ered
cherty limestone which decomposed while covered
with native grasses (Polone, Newland! and Swafford 1975:
17). Gray and Roozitalab (1976:28-30) and Gray and
Stahnks (1970:10-11) classify the Eldorado soil series
as Pa1eudu1ts belonging to the order of U1tisols (mineral
soils with an argillic horizon). They are characterized
as occurring in humid climates with a fairly even dis-tribution
of rainfall, but with a seasonal cycle of
limited aridity. such soils are slightly acidic and have a
3
Figure 1
GEOMORPHIC PROVINCES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
(After Curtis and Ham 1972)
,------1
~,, -------- ..,I
1:::::::1 OZARK PLATEAU
~ NEOSHO LOWLAND
k:~~fJCLAREMORE CUESTA PLAINS
1111111!1!1!11:::1 EASTERN SANDSTONE CUESTA PLAINS
BOSTON MOUNTAINS
low organic content resulting from a forest vegetation
(Gray and Roozitalab 1976:28).
The contemporary Dawson site is on the boundary of
the oak-hickory forest and tall grass prairie (Shelford
1963:19, 307, and 330) or the Ozark and Osage Savanna
biotic districts (Blair and Hubbell 1938:427). Figure
two depicts the range of these biotic districts in north-eastern
Oklahoma.
The Dawson site occurs in the Springfield Struc-tural
Plain (Huffman 1958:11). Topographically this
area is a deeply dissected plateau with flat divides
separated by young, V-shaped stream·valleys. These rivers
and streams form a dendritic drainage pattern across
northeastern Oklahoma.
This evidence seems to indicate a fluctuating envir-onmental
scene. Unfortunately intensive palynOlogical,
paleoclimatological, and biogeographical studies have
not been conducted in this part of Oklahoma. However,
corresponding research in surrounding areas may provide
a generalized understanding of paleoecological processes
operating in northeast Oklahoma (cf. Dort and Jones 1970j
Gruger 1973j King 1973j King and Lindsay 1976j and Wen-dorf
and Hester 1975).
The present day galleria forest in northeastern
Oklahoma may be only 2,000 to 3,000 years old. Paleo-climatologists
have divided the Holocene epoch into
several climatic episodes (see Figure 3a). The earliest
of these periods is known as the Pre-Boreal which began
about 10,000 years ago (Baerreis and Bryson 1975a:214).
Prior to this the Pleistocene epoch was dominant. In
the northern regions the Pleistocene was marked by glacial
advances and retreats. At the same time, however, the
Southern Plains and Oklahoma experienced alternating
pluvial (cool and wet) and interval (less moist) periods
(Wendorf 1975:12). In association with these either a
boreal coniferous forest dominated by Pinus and Picea
or a pine savanna made its appearance on the southern
Plains (Oldfield and Schoenwetter 1975:149-157).
Afterward, during the Holocene a warmer, dryer
interval prevailed throughout the prairie-plains region.
During this interval the boreal forests were retreating
5
1'f'!glire 2
BIOTIC DISTRICTS of NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
(After Blair and Hubbell 1938)
~~_,
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In{U r-------------
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SOZARK DISTRICT
~ CHEROKEE PRAIRIE DISTRICT
OJ] OSAGE SAVANNA 01 STRICT
northward, being replaced by an expanding grassland com-posed
of Compositae and Gramineae (wright 1970:166-169).
As the flora shifted so too did the fauna. Bison moved
toward the Atlantic, later to be isolated in pockets
east of the Mississippi.
The Holocene epoch contrasts strongly with the Pleis-tocene.
Generally climatic conditions became somewhat
warmer as the glaciers retreated northward. Yet our un-derstanding
of the micro-climate for the last 10,000 years
in northeast Oklahoma is minimal at best. This results
primarily from the vast amount of regional variation
present during these years. liTheactual character of
the climatic episodes must be reconstructed from other
evidence, bearing in mind that when it is colder in one
region the atmospheric mechanics may require that it be
warmer in anotherll (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:213).
The Ozark biotic district is presently character-ized
by an oak-hickory forest with a somewhat barren
forest floor. However, several species of shrubs (such
as sassafras) may also be present.
On steeper slopes and in deeper ravines there tends
to be a balanced water supply and hence a more mesic
plant community consisting of sugar maple, hop hornbeam,
white oak, chinquapin oak, redbud and flowering dogwood.
Because of a more balanced water supply the forest floor
is carpeted with herbaceous mesophytes such as wild
ginger, yellow dogtooth violets, bloodroot, may applep
and maidenhair fern. In moister sections var ious mosses,
ferns and liverworts are also common.
The exposed grayish limestone and chert bluffs sup-port
a more scattered vegetation including junipers or
red cedars, blackjack, and winged elm. Here the soil is
quite thin and only the rock crevices contain enough
deposits to support plant life. Accordingly, ground
cover is also relatively sparse with roc~ dwelling her-baceous
plants such as columbines and purple cliff brakes
being representative.
The flood plains of the larger stream valleys sup-port
a more open forest consisting of silver maple,
American elm, red birch, cottonwood, and sycamore as
well as linden and the ubiquitous oaks. Along most
7
A.D/a. C BP
'---------- ,
1900 50
I
1850 I 100
I
1700 I 250
I
I
1550 I 400
1500 I 450
1450 I 500
1400 I 550
I
1250 I 700
1200 I 750
1
1000 I 950
900 I 1050
I
750 I 1200
I
260 I 1690
I
I
AD.I I 1950
B.C. I
50 I 2000
I
940 I 2890
I
1550 I 3500
I
I
2730 I 4680
I
/
I
4030 I 5980
I
4550 / 6500
I
5100 I 7050
I
578C I 7730
I
I
6500 J 8450
I
7190 I 9140
I
7700 I 9650
I
8050 /10,000
CLIMATIC EPISODES CULTURAL VARIANTS for NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
~------------------~----------------
Caddo IV
Modern
Cherokee Historic
Osage
I ! Caddo II
I Spiro Focus --I Gibson 1----------+-----I ---1
\
Neo-At/antic ' ! Harlan Camplex
I Neo-Boreal ---~ / 1Fullon I F:'ffee Neosho L Focus Ir--
I Caddo III
I
Caddo I
Scond ic
\
(Grove C Focus)
i,
I
i
I L ate I
Woodland ,! I Archaic L_ I
I ---.J,i
------------------f (Grove B Focus)
/I ---- .-.-----------._--.--i I
I I
I 'II r----------.-------If M/d die
, I
Atlantic IV I Ar c oa/c i
~ (Grove A Focus) "
Atlantic III
III
III
I
I
I
Sub-Atlantic
Sub-Boreal
Archa/c
Atlantic "
A tlantic I
Early
Boreal "
Boreal I
Pre-Boreal
Figure 30 CORRELATION BETWEEN CLIMATIC EPISODES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL
PERIODS IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
stream banks willows gently spread their branches while
either a soft, green blanket of grass or a scaley, brown
coverlet of patinated chert cobbles may occur (Blair and
Hubbell 1938: 427-428).
Directly adjacent to this biome and near the vicinity
of the Dawson site is the Osage Savanna district (Blair
and Hubbell 1938:433-434). This area, primarily in the
Claremore Cuesta Plains geomorphic province, is composed
of broad shale flatlands with steep-sided hills and
ridges of resistant Pennsylvanian sandstone and limestone
(see Figure 1).
Dry scrubby forest vegetation, including blackjack,
post oak and black hickory, cover the hills and escarp-ments.
However, larger, more mature trees such as Amer-ican
elm, slippery elm, spotted oak, pin oak, hackberries,
as well as red birch, black willow and buttonbush occur
in the flood plain. Washington Irving toured this region
in 1832 and provided us with a description of just such
a forest.
We were overshadowed by lofty trees with
straight, smooth trunks, like stately
columns; and as the glancing rays of the
sun shone through the transparent leaves,
tinted with the many-colored hues of
autumn, I was reminded of the effect of
sunshine among the stained windows and
clustering columns of a Gothic cathedral.
Indeed there is a grandeur and solemnity
in our spacious forests of the West .••
(Irving 1956:41)
On the flat to rolling shale plains, grassland corn-munities
dominate. Tall grasses such as bluejoint, prairie
beardgrass, indiangrass, and switchgrass are most abund-ant.
Herbaceous plants include false indigo, blazing
stars, starwort, sunflower, and sage. Occasional persim-mon
groves occur on the prairie as well.
A third biotic district/the Cherokee Prairie/is
also found in northeastern Oklahoma. It is distinguished
from the Osage Savanna by more aridity. This is a mixed
grassland with both tall and short varieties occurring in
the thinner soil of the limestone scarp. The principal
9
Gramineae are buffalo-grass, side-oats grama, and silver
beardgrass. Yucca plants, prickly pear, and occasional
persimmon groves are scattered throughout the dry prairie.
The average annual precipitation for Mayes County
is about 40 inches. Most occurs during the late spring
and early autumn. Snowfall generally accounts for only
one-fourth or less of this amount. While traveling with
an escort of Rangers, washington Irving observed an autumn
thunderstorm on the Osage Savanna.
In crossing a prairie of moderate extent,
rendered little better than a slippery bog
by the recent showers, we were overtaken by
a violent thunder-gust. The rain came rat-tling
upon us in torrents, and spattered up
like steam along the ground; the whole land-scape
was suddenly wrapped in gloom that
gave a vivid effect to the intense sheets of
lightning, while the thunder seemed to burst
over our very heads, and was reverberated
by the groves and forests that checkered
and skirted the prairie. Man and beast were
so pelted, drenched, and confounded, that
the line was thrown in complete confusion;
some of the horses were so frightened as
to be almost unmanageable, and our scattered
cavalcade looked like a tempest-tossed fleet,
driven hither and thither, at the mercy of
wind and wave (Irving 1956:101-102).
This region is characterized by a humid, warm-temperate
continental climate. The mean annual tem-perature
is 600F. Monthly averages vary between about
360F in December to 800F in August. During the summer,
temperatures soar over the 100 F mark about ten times.
Conversely, about ten days out of each winter remain
at or below freezing. The first frost may be as early
as October 6 while the last freeze may be as late as
April 7. The average growing season, however, is about
205 days (Polone, Newland, and Swafford 1975:83-84).
Galleria forests and grasslands support a wide
array of wildlife. Acorns, oak twigs, bark and cambium
all provide sources of food. Birds such as the greater
prairie chicken, turkey, wood duck, American avocets,
10
cranes, and various species of blackbirds were commonly
-sighted by early Euro-American writers who visited the
pra1r1e and forest regions of northeastern Oklahoma.
Charles Latrobe, who traveled with Washington Irving,
wrote the following lines concerning the fall habits of
the prairie chicken.
Their wariness at this time is extreme;
and the slightest indication of the ap-proach
of man even at a great distance,
is noticed by the cock; who, perched on
the topmost twig elongates his neck and
peeps first on one side, and then on
another, with the most provoking caution
(Latrobe 1836:249).
There are over 250 species of birds which may be found
in this region (Sutton 1967).
On the other hand, only 63 species of mammals in-habit
the northeastern section of the state (Hellack
1974:144-146). These include bison, black bear, badger,
white-tailed deer, bobcat, mountain lion, mink, red
wolf, beaver, southern flying squirrel, as well as the
gray and fox squirrels, woodchuck, eastern chipmunk,
black tailed jackrabbit, swamp rabbit, and others. Rep-tiles
too are frequently encountered (see McDermott
1940:156 and 208; Engbretson 1974:103-118).
Such a wide array of plant and animal life made
this area a desirable locale for various prehistoric
groups.
D. Archaeological Background
Most regional discussions of prehistoric chronol-ogies
begin with a Paleo-Indian or Big Game Hunting
Tradition (13,000 B.P. - 10,000 B.P.). Skeletal remains
of the forest browsing mastodon (Mammut americanus) have
been recovered from the Three Forks locale, but, at the
same time, no cultural materials have been found in
association with these remains. Fluted lanceolate points
are considered representative of this tradition. How-ever,
only scattered surface finds occur in the Ozarks
(see Chapman 1948; Scholtz 1969; Wood and McMillan 1969).
Even though the more western sites relating to this
11
tradition tend to indicate a hunting subsistence strategy,
gathering activities may have played an equally if not
more important role (see Alland, et. al. 1968) which
continued in the following Archaic period.
The Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 2,000 B.P.) is the first
major period represented in northeast Oklahoma. Ecolog-ical
shifts during this time period have led many arch-aeologists
to conclude that more intensive exploitation
patterns were being employed. This situation resulted
in a great deal of regional variation. Three Archaic sub-periods,
Early, Middle and Late, may be defined for
northeastern Oklahoma. Be that as it may, intensive
ecological studies are needed in order to develop a
more comprehensive understanding of Archaic adaptations.
The Early Archaic (10,000 B.P. - 6,500 B.P.) is
characterized by hunting implements which may be con-sidered
transitional between the Paleo-Indian and later
Archaic adaptations (Griffin 1964:225-229). Projectile
points, with ground stems and bases as well as beveled
and/or serrated blades are most typical. such forms as
Dalton, Agate Basin, Big Sandy and Johnson are represen-tative.
Known campsites, such as Rodgers Shelter,
Missouri, were occupied for relatively short periods of
time (McMillan 1976:223-224).
This period has been correlated with the Pre-Boreal,
Boreal I and II as well as Atlantic I-III climatic
episodes (see Figures 3a and 3b). At the present our
understanding of these post-glacial episodes is even
more limited than that of later periods. Thus we have
few if any insights into the climatic process operating
in northeast Oklahoma during this time (Bryson, Baerreis
and Wendland 1970:47).
A second major economic strategy, the Middle Archaic
(6,500 B.P. - 3,500 B.P.), evolved between 7,000 to 6,000
B.P. Former nomadic hunting and gathering bands shifted
to seasonal exploitation cycles of a localized area.
Even more variation in implement form is apparent during
this period. Expanding base points such as Marcos,
Edgewood, Duncan and Hannah are representative. This
economic shift is reflected in base camps being occupied
longer and utilized more intensively by apparently larger
groups. For northeastern Oklahoma this period has been
12
Figure 3b KEY SITES OF NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
w~~:~-rr;-:· v • , "~' '"rt ~ \ J/~i:v ~tr\\~,
I rJ~ _~1_-
~ '\
(OOlogah Res.
V~/
..A- _ ., ,r-I•
/ ~ ~ I a:.
.Ji'"
/ I (
.1
( I •
I •
\
l
1/f'A-~~ L .
12.
r---------: ~,, ---------. ,,
1. DAWSON (My-140)
2. KERR DAM (My-48)
3. WOLF CREEK (My - 72)
4. JUG HILL (My - 18)
5. PACKARD (My - 66)
6. POHL Y (My - 54)
7. REED (01 - 11)
8. LAWRENCE (Nw - 6)
9. JENSEN (My - 32)
10. LILLIE CREEK (01 - 41)
11. HUFFAKER (01 - 12)
12. HUGHES (Ms - 4)
13. HARLAN (Ch - 6)
14. NORMAN (Wg - 2)
designated Grove A Focus (Baerreis 1951~ Bell and Baerreis
1951:10-14). Parallel and expanding stem projectile
points, hafted scrapers, choppers, and small grinding
stones are implements associated with this period (Baer-reis
1951:65-66).
The beginning of the Middle Archaic is associated
with Atlantic III and IV which may be correlated with
expanding grasslands and warmer temperatures on the
Plains (Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:57-58).
The Late Archaic (3,500 B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is bas-ically
a continuation of the Middle Archaic techno-economic
pattern. The major difference is the exploitation tech-niques
may be even more intensive. Grove B Focus rep-resents
the earlier portion of this period (Baerreis
1951; Bell and Baerreis 1951:13-14). The later Grove
C Focus is somewhat problematical. In some regions it
persisted until relatively late while in other areas
outside influences seem to have gradually transformed
it into a formative Woodland culture. The Late Archaic
has a predominance of contracting stem dart points such
as Gary and Langtry.
The initiation of this period is correlated with
the Sub-Boreal climatic episode which is characterized
by less moisture and cooler temperatures on the Plains
(Bryson, Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:60). However, the
following Sub-Atlantic episode is associated with more
moderate precipitation and temperatures as well as being
correlated with the Woodland period.
The Woodland (2,OOO B.P. - 1,250 B.P.) is assoc-iated
with a gradual shift toward part-time horticul-ture.
According to Griffin (1978:63) IIIttook from
roughly 1,000 B.C. to A. D. 700 for agriculture to be-come
a basic subsistence factor, and the populations in
the East continued their dependence on hunting and gath-ering
skills developed during the long Archaic period.1I
Pottery and small projectile or arrow points represent
the major technological changes. In northeastern Okla-homa
the Cooper Focus is considered intrusive (Bell and
Baerreis 1951:27-33) while the Delaware A Focus is be-lieved
to be a local development out of Grove C Focus
(Purrington 1970:531-539).
14
The Mississippian Tradition represents a second in-trusion
into northeastern Oklahoma. The Harlan Complex,
or Caddo I period, is an early Caddoan manifestation and
is represented by a primary mound center at the Harlan
site, Cherokee County (Bell 1972) with possible second-ary
centers at Reed and Lillie Creek in Delaware County.
These centers are generally associated with satellite
communities such as the Jensen site in Mayes County
(Wyckoff 1971:57-72). The political organization of
these people appears to be a theocratic rank society as
surmised from the elaborate goods placed in some but not
all burials. The economic basis of these centers is not
well understood at the present, but they seem to be based
on a mixed pursuit of horticulture, hunting, and collect-ing.
A florescence occurred during the succeeding spiro
Focus or Caddo II (wyckoff 1971:72). During this time
the Harlan center declines and is eclipsed by the Norman
and Hughes mound centers. Reed and Lillie Creek continue
through this period, with Huffaker being added, as satel-lite
communities.
The spiro Focus is followed by the Fort Coffee Focus,
or Caddo III and IV, which represents a Caddoan contrac-tion.
Of the previous centers all but Norman disappear.
Burial associations during these periods indicate a more
egalitarian based society with a number of Plains traits,
such as bison scapula hoes, gaining acceptance. Paleo-climatologists
have speculated that a climatic shift to
a period of less precipitation may have occurred during
the Pacific I episode in the Plains region (Bryson,
Baerreis, and Wendland 1970:64). Related to this clim-atic
shift, Plains influences begin to penetrate into
eastern Oklahoma (Baerreis and Bryson 1965a:2l6; Wyckoff
1971:154-164). "viewing the Gibson-Fulton transition
from the perspective of eastern Oklahoma, it would appear
that environmental factors may be operative in producing
the shift from one period to the succeeding one" (Baer-reis
and Bryson 1965b:72).
Between 450 B.P. and 250 B.P. the climax region for
the Fort Coffee Focus centered on the Arkansas. The
processes of culture change during this time became
even more complex according to Baerreis and Bryson (1965a:
217) as the onset of the Neo-Boreal episode and European
contact began at about the same time.
15
The Neo-Boreal is sometimes referred to as the Lit-tle
Ice Age as glaciers began to reappear in the Rocky
Mountains and other parts of North America. "It is likely
that the growing season was shortened, and that the sum-mers
were cooler in the upper Midwest" (Baerreis and
Bryson 1965a:2l7). About 1850 these conditions shifted
to our present climatic patterns.
Somewhat further north and east of the Fort Coffee
Focus was the Neosho Focus. Recovered cultural remains
from Fort Coffee and Neosho components indicate a close
relationship between the two. Indeed Wyckoff (197l:l96)
comments: "That these two manifestations are contemp-oraneous
is evident. That they are the same people is
a distinct possibility." Exactly who these people were
is somewhat speculative. There are two possibilities.
During the historic period the wichita are known to have
occupied this region (Newcomb and Field 1967:246-250).
Thus the Fort Coffee and Neosho Focus may be correlated
with the wichita or with an intermediary Caddoan group
who traded with the wichita. Be that as it may, the
wichita were displaced from this area by the Osage in
the eighteenth century. Further displacements occurred
in the nineteenth century as the southeastern groups
were removed from their homelands.
By 1817 about 5,000 Cherokee had been relocated to
northwestern Arkansas. Disputes between them and the
Osage arose over access to the bison hunting grounds to
the west resulting in an Osage withdrawal to Kansas. By
1840, the majority of Cherokee had been forcibly removed
to Indian Territory where they established a capital at
Tahlequah. After the Civil War the Osage returned to
Indian Territory and purchased reservation land from the
Cherokee.
Historic archaeological research in northeastern
Oklahoma has been somewhat limited. Only two sites, both
nineteenth century trading posts, have been excavated
by archaeologists (see Wyckoff and Barr 1968; Baugh 1970).
with this background in mind we should now turn to
an examination of excavation strategies and cultural re-mains
from the Dawson site.
16